MIXED MARTIAL ARTS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
Bishop, S.H.1; La Bounty,
P.2, Devlin, M.3
Texas A&M University Commerce1
Baylor University2
The University of Alabama3
Keywords: combat sports, concussions,
UFC, martial arts, MMA, fighters
INTRODUCTION
The
history of mixed martial arts (MMA) originates to 649 B.C., when the sport of
pankration (pan, meaning ÒallÓ, and kratos, meaning ÒpowersÓ), combined the
arts of boxing and wrestling (42) and was first
introduced into the Olympic Games.
Modern MMA is a combat sport combining traditional and non-traditional
martial arts, where grappling and striking aspects are merged to create a
method for competition. Despite the
sportÕs history, modern MMA had not become popularized in the United States
until 1975 when martial artist and movie star, Bruce Lee, introduced his
eclectic art, Jeet Kun Do (1). It wasnÕt until 1993 that a major
organization was created in the United States. This organization, known as the Ultimate
Fighting Championship (UFC), formed the first modern day MMA competition, which
held in Denver, Colorado. The aggressive
appearance of the sport and lack of a governing body steered politicians to
create sports-specific legislation, leaving an uninformed public to publish
numerous articles of varying levels of accuracy. Eventually MMA notoriety garnered from
events and media coverage caused the sport to be banned in all but three
states, prompting financial struggles until 2000, when the
UFC was purchased by Zuffa, LLC.
Since then, the company has turned the UFC into a multi-million dollar
brand arguably making it one of the fastest-growing sports in America. The purchase was an attempt to redefine
the competition as a legitimate sport by instigating time-limits,
weight classes, and rules to protect the athlete.
By
2005, the sport had gained enough commercial acceptance that it spawned its own
reality show. This show, known as The Ultimate Fighter, was regularly
aired on basic cable. By 2012, the
sport finally transitioned from a banned activity to mainstream status, with
FOX regularly showing events on its main and ancillary networks. According to UFC.com, UFC broadcasting reaches
149 countries and half a billion homes in 20 different languages (www.UFC.com,
2012) and has held televised events nine countries other than the United
States.
The
increase in popularity has prompted a sudden increase in research surrounding
MMA. Spectator motives for consumption (4, 42), personality traits of media consumers (16), and an overall
increase in interest for the UFC has been the subject of previous scholarly
investigation. The empirical
research of MMA is limited with few studies having been published. The purpose of this study is to
comprehensively review the current state of the literature and provide a
foundation for future MMA research.
Methods
A literature
search was conducted on PubMed and SportDiscus using the key words Òmixed
martial arts,Ó ÒMMA,Ó and Òcombat sportsÓ to elicit a comprehensive list of
articles in the field. The published
literature related to MMA was then placed into four categories based on general
themes created a priori after a
comprehensive search for peer-reviewed research; MMA history and components,
injury epidemiology, sports specific training, and social perception.
History
As
early as 649 B.C., the Greeks practiced combining different martial arts in the
Olympic Games and by 221 B.C., striking and grappling
techniques were practiced by the military and for sport in China. The principle philosophy behind MMA
development was to create a set of martial skills to prepare an individual for
any combat situation, whether in the ring or on the battlefield. MMA tactics draw heavily from Muay Thai,
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ), wrestling, and boxing. Countries throughout history
have developed martial arts systems based on these similar striking and
grappling concepts. Some reviews (22, 24) have explained that the development of Eastern
and Western combat arts initially took place autonomously of each other until
the 20th century. In the 1960Õs more fervent martial artists
perceived the competitions within the sport to be too restricted by rules and that
they inadequately tested combat skills (15). It was not until
Bruce Lee popularized martial arts in the West that a modernized MMA training
philosophy was realized (30). From his experience, Lee believed that a
complete fighter needed to combine multiple disciplines with strength and
conditioning techniques. By 1993,
MMA was brought closer to mainstream with the formation of the UFC. The purpose of the original UFC
tournament was to pit the many different martial art styles against one another
in one tournament. The UFC created a series of competitions combining martial
artists from different disciplines together into a single tournament. The tournament had very limited
regulations and no official governing body. However, limited rules were applied that
prohibited biting, eye gouging, fish-hooking and
strikes to the groin, though subsequent events later allowed attacking the
groin. The perceived violence of
the sport contributed to it being banned in 30 states, and was viewed as nothing
more than organized street fighting or Òhuman cock-fightingÓ
according to Senator John McCain (29). The sport repositioned itself in 2001 by
creating a new list of 31 fouls, five weight classes, and eight possible ways
to end fights (http://boxing.nv.gov,
last accessed January 2013).
Currently, the UFC exists as the premier fight promotion organization
and has become a multi-million dollar company, merging with Pride of Japan and Strikeforce in America to facilitate the standardization of MMA
contests.
MMA Components
Bruce
Lee drew from Chinese Kung Fu, Western boxing, Muay Thai, French savate, Korean
taekwondo, Japanese judo, and Brazilian jiu jitsu as well as others to create
his own fighting system (30). Since that time,
MMA practitioners have evolved the sport into a hybridization of fighting
styles and respective schools for training specific disciplines. This is
evident as contemporary MMA discusses fightersÕ strengths or approaches rather
than fightersÕ various disciplines (22). It has become commonplace for current
elite fighters to write books explaining the nuances of their personal
styles. For example, Author Bolleli
has collaborated with former champions Lyoto Machida (10) and BJ Penn (9) to publish works on
various personal fighting styles.
Bolleli has gone on to review many of these books as well as help
differentiate the various styles of grappling associated with MMA (8).
Injury Epidemiology
MMA
is seen as independent in research and literature when compared to other
contact and combat sports as being especially violent. This perception seems to be based more
on emotion than evidence as seen in recent legislature to ban MMA in Canada (6) and England (46). It does not help counter arguments when
conflicting results of injury prevalence and incidence rates are found in
published research. In a 10-year
review of injuries, it was found that during 642 matches, 28.3 ± 3.4% of were stopped
due to ÒsignificantÓ blunt force to the head (14). It should be noted that these data did
not differentiate between trauma to the head and concussion, and there was no
mention of the more stringent rule changes in 2001 to help improve safety of the
fighters. Furthermore, a study in
2006 discussed the incidence of injury in professional MMA competitions during
a 5-year period (7). Bledsoe and colleagues (7) examined injury
incidence and prevalence after the stringent rule changes of 2001. Bledsoe examined medical and match
outcome data from the Nevada Athletic Commission from 2001-2004 and found that
there was a lower concussion rate of incidence for MMA than that of
boxing. The most common injuries
seen in MMA were facial lacerations followed by broken hands. A later article published in the British
Journal of Sports Medicine examined injury trends in MMA within a retrospective
cohort study from 2002-2007 (35). Ngai and colleagues found during this
5-year period, regulated MMA event injuries were similar to other combat
sports, with only 3% of matches ending in concussion. In contrast, an article looking at
National Electronic Surveillance data was examined comparing MMA and other
ÒcontactÓ and team sports to determine injuries related to their respective
sports (36). MMA was found to have 65% more
injuries than boxing, though only 1.6% of injuries requiring
hospitalization.
Other
observational injury prevalence reported in MMA literature were joint or
ligament damage (5, 43) auricular hematomas (38), herpes gladiatorum
(HG) (26), and
tympanic membrane ruptures (19). Fields et al. (19) reported overall
injury rate in MMA competitions similar to that reported of other full contact
martial arts competitions. Injuries
during MMA were reported to occur slightly more often than in taekwondo, but less
often than reported in professional boxing, kickboxing and karate tournaments (19).
To
better assess neurological injuries during competition, a sports-specific
concussion test was recently developed and tested on combat athletes. The test, known as the King-Devrick
(K-D) test, measures the speed of rapidly identifying numbers from three test
cards (21). The rationale
behind the K-D test was to develop a Òrapid concussion-screening tool by
examining the physical manifestations of reduced brain functionsÓ (e.g.
impaired eye movements, attention, and language). During the trial, Galetta et al. (21) examined boxers and
MMA fighters (N=39) during sparring sessions using the K-D test. Post-fight scores were significantly
different (i.e. significantly worse) for individuals with trauma to the head
during the match (59.1 ± 7.4 versus 41.0 ± 6.7 seconds, respectively, p <
0.001). Participants knocked unconscious showed the greatest decrease in test
performance from pre-fight to post-fight, with higher (worse) post-fight K-D
scores (r(s) = -0.79, p = 0.0001) and greater worsening of scores (r(s) = 0.90,
p < 0.0001). Researchers further
validated the K-D test by comparing test results to an existing criterion meant
for military head trauma, known as the Military Acute Concussion Evaluation
(MACE)(20). Overall, the K-D test results correlated
well with post-fight MACE scores. Researchers concluded the K-D test a valid and reliable method for quick concussion
screening for athletes in combat sports.
Sport-Specific Training
Though
it is has yet to be empirically established, it is evident that the
preponderance of elite professional mixed martial artists today are highly
conditioned athletes. Many of these
athletes employ professional strength and condition coaches to help them with
this endeavor. However, due to the
dynamic nature of MMA (i.e., needing to optimize, speed, power, muscular
endurance, aerobic endurance, bodyweight/composition, etc.) designing and
implementing strength and conditioning programs with many factors must be
considered. Additionally, designing
strength conditioning programs for these athletes is complicated by multiple factors.
Some of these factors complicating sports-specific training are: existing
injuries, inconsistent schedules, variable recovery times, and competing for
time with other coaches. All of
these aforementioned factors make designing strength and conditioning program
for the mixed martial artist challenging.
The
paucity of intervention and observational based research of professional mixed
martial artists is due in part to the small number of professional fighters,
particularly at the elite level, and gaining access to them. Additionally, getting elite mixed
martial artists to participate in intervention based studies is difficult due
to these athletes typically do not want to chance having their performance, or
outcome of a fight, affected in any way by a researchersÕ ÒexperimentÓ or
ÒprotocolÓ. The focus of this
section is not to elucidate all aspects of developing a performance enhancement
protocol for mixed marital artists.
Rather, this section will attempt to examine the relatively scant
evidence existing on this topic and provide basic guidelines for enhancing
overall performance for a mixed martial artist. A number of detailed reviews
specifically of training methodologies and considerations have been conducted (28, 31, 37, 40).
Preliminary
observational studies acknowledge MMA as a physically demanding sport requiring
high volume strength and conditioning training (2, 28).
In a review article by La Bounty and colleagues (28), strength and
conditioning considerations were consolidated using available research on MMA
sports-specific training. The
purpose of the article was to discuss the available research articles on
strength and conditioning for MMA.
La Bounty and colleagues cited 2 studies in the area of sports-specific
training. Amtmann (2) looked at
self-reported training methods, though the study did not distinguish whether
the athletes were professional or amateur.
The majority of the fighters surveyed in this study (25 out of 28
participants) revealed that they participate in some kind of resistance
training. The frequency and
training specificity varied throughout the survey results. Because of the various components that
are combined to for MMA, it is inferred that MMA is a physiologically demanding
sport, challenging the physiology of the body and all of the energy
systems. Training for MMA has
raised concerns of overtraining due to the intense nature of the sport and the
lack of sports-specific guidelines (3).
When
considering sports-specific training programs for MMA, it is also important to
note fitness and descriptive variables such as oxygen consumption (VO2),
strength, and flexibility. In a
comparative physiological profile study, Schick et al (39) examined 11 male MMA
fighters. Multiple descriptive and
performance measures were collected from fighters, including body composition,
vertical jump, flexibility, grip strength, VO2max, and relative maximum upper
and lower body strength. The findings from these tests of MMA fighters were
then compared to judo, Kung Fu, kick boxers and wrestling practitioners. Results
indicated that male MMA fighters had similar body fat percentage
(11.7 ± 4.0%) to judokas (11.4 ± 8.4%), but greater than wrestlers (7.6 ± 3.4%)
and kung fu fighters (9.5 ± 6.3%). Their VO2max (55.5 ± 7.3 ml/kg/min) was
comparable to wrestlers (54.6 ± 2.0 ml/kg/min), but greater than judokas (48.3
± 8.1 ml/kg/min) and less than kick boxers (62.7 ± 3.6 ml/kg/min). MMA athletes
were less flexible (30.3 ± 10.6 cm) than kung fu athletes (45.5 ± 6.1 cm) but
were as flexible as wrestlers (30.8 ± 5.8 cm). MMA fighters (57.6 ± 7.3 cm) had
less vertical jumping abilities than wrestlers (60.0 ± 10.0 cm).
According
to self-reported training methods, Amtmann, (2) found that 25 out of
the 28 athletes supplemented their training with strength training. Strength
training frequency ranged from 1-7 times per week, and overall frequency of
fight-style specific training session ranged from 3-12 times per week. Five out
of the 28 athletes reported to use or have had used anabolic-androgenic
steroids. Twelve of the MMA athletes did not perform exercises specifically for
the neck musculature, and only eight used the power clean and/or power snatch
within their strength-training program. The results suggest that MMA athletes
have a need for strength and conditioning education, in regards to balanced
training, effective exercises, and the side effects of anabolic androgenic
steroid use.
Other
related research in the area of sports specific training focuses more on the
muscles stimulated in sports-specific activity, shedding light on potential
exercise considerations. McGill et
al. (34) recruited five elite
MMA athletes for participation in a muscle activation study. Electromyography (EMG) and three-dimensional
(3D) spine motion was measured using a variety of strikes. Many of the strikes intend to create
fast motion and finish with a very large striking force, demonstrating a
Òdouble peakÓ of muscle activity. An initial peak took place with the
initiation of motion with a second peak observed upon contact with a heavy bag.
Observation of the contract-relax-contract pulsing cycle during forceful and
quick strikes suggested that it may be beneficial to
consider this type of training, involving not only muscle contraction rate but
also the rate of muscle relaxation.
To
determine the proper program design for MMA athlete strength and conditioning,
you must first define the specific requirements of each individual sport. It is widely published and accepted that
athletic performance can be enhanced when utilizing sports-specific training
regimens. Because of the specific
demands of MMA, a proper training program needs to be both anaerobically and
aerobically demanding. Competitions
in combat sports may last from mere seconds to 25 minutes. A full length MMA fight can challenge
all three of the bodyÕs energy systems (ATP-PCR, glycolytic, and aerobic). According to fightmetric.com, the
official statistics provider of the Ultimate Fighting Championship, the average
MMA bout lasts 1.8 rounds, or approximately 9 minutes (37). More specifically, Del Vecchio et
al.
(18) reported in their
findings that on average fighters will perform 6-14 seconds of high-intensity
actions followed by 46-62 seconds of low-intensity efforts plus combat
interruption. Although more work in
this area is needed, these data provide some preliminary insight into what a
ÒaverageÓ fight may entail, as well as certain points to consider when
formulating a strength and conditioning programs.
When
applying sports-specific concepts to MMA training, exercise intensity is
arguably one of the most important variables to consider. However, due to the limited research
investigating MMA, strength and conditioning professionals often rely upon the
data from other combat sports such as Muay Thai kickboxing, wrestling, etc.,
when formulating exercise plans.
Nevertheless, a limited number of empirical based studies have examined
exercise intensity variables that exist in MMA. In 2008, Amtmann and colleagues studied
the metabolic demands of MMA and the effects of employing three different
interval training methods to prepare athletes for the physiological stress of a
mixed martial arts match (3). All participants performed a total of six
interval training sessions over the three week
intervention. Additionally, blood
lactate measurements and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed
during the interval training sessions and immediately following (i.e., within two
minutes) their actual fights. More
specifically, the three different interventions that were utilized were: 1) MMA
specific actions including shadow boxing and wrestling combined with high
intensity movement such as push-ups, pull-ups, jump squats, etc.; 2) two
separate four minute rounds of MMA sparring; and 3) a cycle ergometer protocol
utilizing a eight repetitions of 20 seconds of maximal intensity cycling
followed by 10 seconds of submaximal work (4 minutes total). Training lactate measurements ranged
from 8.1 to 19.7 mmoláL-1 with training RPE levels ranging from 15
to 19 on Borg's RPE scale (6-20 scale) (11). The
post-competition lactate measurements ranged from 10.2 to 20.7 mmoláL-1,
with the post-competition RPE measurements ranging from 13 to 19. Though only four total subjects were
observed during this study, the investigators concluded that the interval
training protocols they utilized appeared to be an effective way to metabolically
prepare the majority (i.e., three) of the athletes for an MMA match. Furthermore, results indicated
using RPE and lactate were reliable in measuring exercise intensity in
MMA. It should be noted that the
sample size in this study was relatively small (n=4) and
the investigators only monitored these athletes for three weeks prior to their
actual fight (2). However, it is not uncommon for an
athleteÕs training camps to start six weeks or more prior to the
competition. It should also be
pointed out that some mixed martial artists stay in relatively good condition
and maintain their bodyweight between their fights. Conversely, some of these athletes are
known for allowing themselves to become relatively
deconditioned and in some cases gain significant amount of body mass between
competitions. Thus, it is not known
what these particular athletesÕ initial bodyweight/body composition status,
baseline strength and conditioning levels, and training methodology were prior
to the three week interval training intervention.
Although,
there are limited energy demand data in MMA athletes, existing research in
other combat sports can be used to estimate some of the metabolic demands of
MMA. MMA combines aspects of
various striking arts (karate, Muay Thai, etc.) with grappling based
disciplines such as freestyle wrestling and Brazilian jiu-jitsu to name a
few. Muay Thai kickboxing is
a very physiologically demanding sport and is one of the
primary striking arts utilized by the majority mixed martial artists. Thus, examining the physiological
demands of Muay Thai may help partially reveal the demands of MMA. Crisafulli et al (17) reported that in a three round simulated Muay
Thai match (consisting of three minute rounds each separated by one minute),
significant contributions of both aerobic and anaerobic systems were
required. More specifically,
anaerobic glycolysis was dominant early in the fight, but decreased steadily
after the first round; while a concomitant reliance on aerobic metabolism
progressively increased as the match continued (17).
To improve performance in this sport, the authors suggest incorporating
exercises to enhance both aerobic and anaerobic systems (17).
Other studies investigating grappling based arts such as wrestling, have
shown blood lactate levels as high as 20 mmol/L following a five minute college
freestyle match (27). These values approximate what Amtmann et
al (3) reported in mixed
martial artists immediately (within two minutes) following a MMA bouts that
lasted the entire regulation time (i.e., went to a judgeÕs decision).
In
their recent examination of MMA athletes, Del Vecchio et al (18) examined what they
described as the Òeffort-pause (EP) ratioÓ in 26 MMA matches. The investigators concluded that the EP
ratio of MMA matches ranged from 9:1 to 6:1. However, when the high-intensity efforts
were compared to low-intensity efforts plus pauses it decreased to
1:2-1:4. The investigators reported
these ratios were intermediate to values previously found in grappling based
arts (wrestling and judo) and striking based arts (i.e., taekwondo and karate) (18). Thus, this EP ratio could be loosely
related to a work-rest ratio. As
result of this aforementioned study, along with the work by Amtmann et al. (3), it suggests that
high intensity interval training is probably efficacious for enhancing fight
specific conditioning. In the
Amtmann study (3), the authors did not
report specific work-rest ratios in two of the three interval protocols. On the other hand, the cycle protocol
they employed closely mirrored TabataÕs cycle ergometer protocol (44) and equated to a
work-rest ratio of 2:1. (18). Tabata et al. (44) demonstrated that
performing moderate-intensity endurance training (~70% VO2 max) for 60 minutes five
days a week did increase VO2 max by ~5 ml/kg/min, but did not improve anaerobic
capacity. Conversely, performing
high-intensity intermittent training (7-8 sets of 20 seconds of 170% of VO2 max
on a cycle ergometer followed by 10 seconds rest) not only significantly
improved VO2 max by ~7 ml/kg/min, but also enhanced anaerobic capacity by
28%. This work-rest ratio may be
significantly more strenuous than the 1:2-1:4 ratio that was observed in the
study by Del Vecchio et al (18). Burgomaster and cohort (12) had participants
perform 4-6 maximal intensity Wingate tests (30 seconds) with 4.5 minutes
between sets three times a week. They
compared these subjects with another experimental group that performed more
moderate intensity continuous cycling protocol (40-60 minutes) five days per
week. The authors concluded that
even though the high intensity group only spent about 1.5 hours a week
exercising, compared to 4.5 hours spent in the moderate intensity group, both protocols produced
similar improvements in mitochondrial markers of both carbohydrate and lipid
oxidation, as well as glycogen and phosphocreatine utilization (12). Other studies investigating the effects
of high intensity training have also reported positive results in enhancing
various aspects of exercise performance (13, 23, 32).
It
is clear that MMA can potentially tax both aerobic and anaerobic energetic
pathways and both should be trained in order to optimize an MMA athleteÕs
potential. However, with the
existing available research, high intensity interval training appears to
enhance various aspects of both anaerobic and aerobic performance. Equally important, high-intensity
interval based training accomplishes this goal in a significantly less amount
of time as compared to moderate intensity, longer duration exercise. Even though the benefits of high
intensity interval training are well established, some combat athletes prefer
to occasionally periodize low intensity exercise sessions into their training
regimens. Lower intensity, aerobic
based exercise such as jogging, swimming, cycling,
etc. are used by some combat athletes during ÒlightÓ conditioning or active
recovery days. It could be argued
that these ÒlighterÓ or ÒrecoveryÓ days, if used sparingly, add variety to an
athleteÕs overall training regimen and may theoretically minimize psychological
staleness of the athlete.
Interestingly, Wilson and colleagueÕs meta-analysis of concurrent
training (47), reported that running, but not cycling,
appeared to result in significant decrements in hypertrophy and strength in
those that concurrently trained.
Therefore, if low to moderate intensity, aerobic based exercise is
occasionally employed in the training protocol of mixed marital artists,
jogging appears to be a one of the least optimal modalities. Thus, Òroad workÓ
(i.e., longer duration, moderate intensity jogging) traditionally utilized in
boxers and other combat athleteÕs training regimens, should only be used
sparingly or possibly not at all.
Ultimately, taking the preponderance of the existing literature, it
appears that the conditioning specific training devoted to prepare a mixed
martial artist above and beyond their skill-specific training,
should primarily focus on high-intensity interval training.
Lastly,
to our knowledge, there have not been any peer-reviewed studies investigating
the effects of various periodization models specific to mixed martial artistsÕ
strength and conditioning programs.
Unlike many other sports, a mixed marital artist does not always know
when their next competition will be, as there is not a ÒseasonÓ for fighting,
per se. Thus, taking these points
into consideration, it is prudent to utilize an undulating (non-linear) form or
periodization as opposed to a linear model (28). In conclusion, much more research is
warranted to elucidate strength and conditioning methodologies to optimize
various aspects of performance, recovery, and injury prevention.
Motives for Consumer Consumption of MMA
A
limited amount of research concerning fan motivations for consumption has been
conducted. The importance of
growing literature that focuses on the consumer allows for an inward-outward
perspective of this growing field of research. Comparing what practitioners believe
about the sport to what consumers believe add additional opportunities for researching
in this field. Currently, research
has examined the consumption motivations, demographics, financial affluence,
and personality traits of consumers of mixed martial arts.
Seungmo
et al. (42) discussed the
spectator motives at an amateur MMA event, finding
that the general audience for an MMA event were young males, with post
high-school education, and relatively affluent (>$50,000). Although violence is a large part of MMA
as a sport, it was only seen as the fifth highest rated motive, illustrating
that consumers appreciate the aesthetics and drama more than the violent nature
of the sport. The findings of Seungmo
et al. contradict critical claims of a lower-class spectator base of MMA (42).
Another
article by Seungmo et al. (41) examined MMA
spectatorsÕ motives in two of the worldÕs largest MMA markets: the USA and South Korea. UFC events draw higher ratings than the NBA,
NHL, and MLB for key demographics; setting pay per view records by generating
more than 200 million dollars in 2006 in the US alone (25, 45). Similar to the UFC, MMA promoters such as K-1
found in South Korea, sold for 30 million dollars (42). The goal of Kim and colleagues was to
investigate the differences among fans by comparing motives and media consumption
behaviors of 437 spectators attending a local MMA event in either the US
(n=208) or major metropolitan area (n=229). Researchers found that significant
predictors for American media consumption were sport and athlete interest and
drama with South Korean spectators drawn to sport interest, drama and adoration
for primary motives of media consumption.
The authors found that differences between the USA and Korean
demographics could be attributed to cultural differences and educational
background in martial arts.
Andrew
et al. (4) explored the impact
of nine motives on media and merchandise consumption among consumers of MMA.
Investigators used a 43-item questionnaire, measuring
potential gender differences in spectator motivations and media
consumption. Researchers discovered
statistically significant differences among spectator motives between males and
females. Linear regression revealed
significant relationships between sex-specific spectator motivations and media
and merchandise consumption. The results from Andrew et al. suggest using
sex-specific marketing strategies for the greatest impact on MMA consumption of
media and merchandise.
A
study by Choong Hoon et al. (16) looked at
personality and the relationship with MMA and media consumption. Choong Hoon
utilized the hedonic paradigm model to examine if emotions intercede the
relationship between personality type (i.e., risk taking) and attitude toward
MMA. Their study also examined sport-media consumption (e.g., television) of
MMA. The use of structural equation modeling to examine risk taking, pleasure,
arousal, attitude, and actual consumption behavior found that emotion (pleasure
and arousal) significantly mediated the relationship between personalities
(risk taking and attitude). A
conceptual model to explain the relationship among fan personalities, emotions,
and MMA consumption suggested individuals with Òsensation seekerÓ, or Òrisk
takerÓ personality traits are more likely to enjoy violent media content (33).
Ball
and Dixon (6) discussed that much
of the negativity MMA has garnered in popular literature is anecdotal and
unfounded. Ball and Dixon went on
record stating a physicianÕs opinions need to be evidence-based, not
emotion-based concerning their perception of MMA. The investigators go on to compare MMA
to other popular international sports, stating:
ÒHorseback
riding, rugby, hockey and football also possess a substantial risk of
neurologic injury. Furthermore,
when the actual number of participants within each activity is accounted for,
the total number of injured patients, and therefore the impact on health
systems and the economics of society, dwarf the small number of injuries among
few MMA combatants. Any one of these other activities, when viewed through a
public health prism, could easily be classified as a health emergency (6)Ó
It
could be argued that within the rules of a potentially hyper-violent sport,
education of officials and athletes is paramount in injury prevention. Many of
these athletes (professional, and many amateurs) are medically screened with
annual physicals, eye exams, blood work, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
among several other annual exams prior to and post-competition when
requested. The current protocol for
professional and amateur fights mandates suspension of athletes for various
periods of time if a concussion or traumatic brain injury is detected. Suspension duration of athletes varies
based on severity of the injury.
Conclusion
It
is immediately apparent that there are no available prospective observational
studies to assist us upon review of the objective evidence. In fact, the current literature is
limited to case studies describing primarily orthopedic injuries, as well as
two retrospective reviews of five and seven year experiences in popular MMA
regions. While it would be both
na•ve and inaccurate to suggest MMA fighters are not exposed to a risk of
injury, the data indicates concussive head trauma does not occur as frequently
in MMA as it does in boxing (7). Currently, there are no long-term data
to draw conclusions. As a result of
the grassroots nature of MMA development, a working relationship of ringside
physicians, commission inspectors, referees and educated athletes has been
established. This consortium of professionals
has come together to address the growing health concerns and controls necessary
to regulate the sport. It is
hypothesized that with more empirical studies to draw from, event sponsors and
organizational authorities can make better decisions on rules and regulations.
Additionally,
future research should examine the physical requirements necessary for MMA
participation and sports-specific training. Preliminary research has compared MMA
athletes with judokas, wrestlers and kung fu practitioners using multiple
physiological variables (39). Results from this research show
similarities in body types between these athletes, and unique demands and
training adaptations specific to MMA.
Research has listed aerobic training as a major part of MMA athlete
training, but there have been no empirical studies providing rationale or the
effects of such training on performance.
Future research could look at observational metabolic and cardiovascular
demands of MMA training and competition.
As MMA athletes have no true ÒseasonÓ, itÕs important to examine a
general Òfight campÓ period of training (preparatory training immediately prior
to competition) of fighters to determine optimal performance-enhancing
considerations for training.
From
the standpoint of social motivation, future research could focus on markets
where MMA has experienced growth, such as Japan and the UK, to better
understand MMA growth. While these
countries have seen significant exposure to the sport, research could be
expanded to examine areas that have not been exposed to the sport, to better
understand how to develop into new areas.
In addition to understanding the motivations for consumption,
researchers should consider the antecedents of attraction towards this sport
including social and psychological identification traits.
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